Introduction
Egypt has one of the oldest civilizations of the world. Its history is rich with events and its land still hides a lot of mystery. With the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the east, Egypt enjoys a strategic location on the map of the world. This made it always desired by empires looking to widen their reach.

Many of the monuments and temples constructed thousands of years ago are still standing, and are continuously maintained to preserve them in good shape. A survey of existing artifacts and archeological sites of ancient Egypt reveals an impressive inventory of Pharaonic, Greek, Roman, Jewish, Christian, and Islamic heritage and cultures.

Egypt has also a remarkable array of modern wonders including the largest earth dam in the world, the Suez Canal that connects the Mediterranean  and Red Seas,  subways, roads, bridges, tunnels, and huge energy generation, water storage, massive irrigation, and giant land reclamation projects. Faced with an explosion of population increase, the effort of upgrading existing infrastructure and constructing new ones for the many new cities presently under construction is unparallel. Furthermore, for its beautiful nature, mild weather, endless beaches, and rich history, Egypt is a major tourist attraction with countless hotels and resorts that cater to every taste and budget .

Herodotus, the ancient Greek historian and traveller, once descibed Egypt as `the gift of the Nile', and since long before the birth of Christ travellers have been drawn by images of pyramids, the Sphinx, ancient Luxor and the Nile river. The Pharaohs, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Turks and the British have all ruled Egypt, and modern Egypt is an amalgam of these legacies and the influences of Islam and the 20th century.

Mud-brick villages stand beside Pharaonic ruins surrounded by buildings of steel, stone and glass. Bedouins live in goatskin tents and farmers till the earth with the simple tools of their ancestors. Townsfolk dress in long flowing robes, others in Levis and Reeboks, and city traffic competes with donkey-drawn carts and wandering goats. Nowhere are these contrasts played out so colourfully as in Cairo, a massive city thronged with people and ringing to the sound of car horns, ghetto-blasters and muezzins summoning the faithful to prayer. Egypt isn't all chaos and clatter, however. It's also a diver's dream dip, a quiet camel caravan through the desert or a long lazy punt down the Nile.
General

land fed by the River Nile -- the Nile valley and the Nile Delta -- that is both habitable and arable.

The Sinai Peninsula is formed of sand desert and spectacular mountains rising as high as 2,637m (8,652ft) above Red Sea level. The beaches, marine life, and coral reefs in this area are beyond imagination.

The River Nile .. With its silver water in the predawn light

The Nile reveals glimpses of ancient and modern Egypt The Father of Rivers, more than any other feature of the country, characterizes Egypt. The Nile emanates from Ethiopia and Sudan in the south, flowing north through the country for 1,545km (960mi), emptying into the Mediterranean Sea and all along its course provides Egypt and her people with life and sustenance. Throughout history the Egyptian Nile Valley has been defined as two distinct regions -- Upper Egypt which extends south of Cairo to the Sudanese border, and Lower Egypt, which encompasses the Nile Delta, which begins north of Cairo.

The great river made Egyptian civilization possible by bringing fertile soil and life-giving water to the desert. It set the stage for the world's first stone building, for the great pyramids and Sphinx, for countless monuments to honor gods and rulers such as Horus and Tut, for the first nation-state and the pyramids, the mosques and palaces and souks, and the ancient temples and tombs strung like gems along the Nile .

History of Egypt
Pre-dynastic history
Archaeological evidence suggests that hunters inhabited Egypt over 250,000 years ago when the region was green grassland. The Paleolithic period around 25,000BC brought climatic changes, which turned Egypt into a desert. The inhabitants survived by hunting and fishing and through a primitive form of cultivation.
 
Desertification of Egypt was halted by rains, which allowed communities of cultivators to settle in Middle Egypt and the Nile Delta. These farmers grew wheat, flax and wove linen fabrics in addition to tending flocks.
The first indigenous civilizations in Egypt have been identified in the south of the country through archaeological excavations. The Badarian culture is the earliest known developed Egyptian civilization based on farming, hunting and mining. Badarians produced fine pottery and carved objects as well as acquiring turquoise and wood through trading.

The Early Dynastic or Archaic Period (3100-2686BC)
This period is shrouded in mythology. Little is known of Menes and his descendants outside of their divine ancestry and that they developed a complex social system, patronized the arts and constructed temples and many public buildings.
The foundation of Memphis, the world's first imperial city, is attributed to Menes. From Memphis the third and fifth kings of the First Dynasty, which extended from 3100 to 2890BC set out to conquer the Sinai. During the First Dynasty culture became increasingly refined. The royal burial grounds at Saqqara and Abydos became sites of highly developed mastabas.     
The Second Dynasty lasting from 2980 to 2686BC was characterized by regional disputes and a decentralization of Pharaonic authority, a process that was only temporarily halted by the Pharaoh Raneb, also called Hotepsekhemwy.

The Old Kingdom (2686-2181BC)
Pharaonic burial practices continued to develop during the Third Dynasty, lasting from 2686-2613BC, which marked the beginnings of the Old Kingdom. The first of Egypt's pyramids were constructed during the 27th century BC. The Step Pyramid of Saqqara built for King Zoser by his chief architect Imhotep, who later generations deified, is considered by many to be the first pyramid ever constructed in Egypt.
Prior to this, most royal tombs were constructed of sun-dried bricks. Zoser's gargantuan step pyramid attested to the pharaoh's power and established the pyramid as the pre-eminent Pharaonic burial structure. During Zoser's rule the Sun God Ra attained a supra-eminent place over all other Egyptian deities. 
The Fourth Dynasty (2613-2494BC) was characterized by expansionism and pyramid construction. King Sneferu constructed the Red Pyramid at Dahshur near Saqqara and the Pyramid of Meidum in Al-Fayoum.
He also sent military expeditions as far as Libya and Nubia. During his reign trading along the Nile flourished. Sneferu's descendants, Cheops (Khufu), Chephren (Khafre) and Mycerinus (Menkaure) were the last three kings of the Fourth Dynasty. These three pharaohs built the pyramids of Giza. 
Egypt under Cheops became the first state in the history of the world to be governed according to an organized system. The Fourth Dynasty also extended trade relations with the Near East and mined and smelted copper in Nubia.
The Fifth Dynasty (2490-2330BC) was marked by a relative decline in Pharaonic power and wealth, evidenced by the smaller pyramids of Abu Sir built during this period. The pharaohs ceased to be absolute monarchs and began to share power with the aristocracy and high officials. As the independence of the nobility increased, their tombs became larger and were built at increasing distances from the pharaohs.
Worship of the sun god Ra also spread during the Fifth Dynasty. It was during the reign of Unas that religious texts were placed in the pyramids bearing descriptions of the afterworld, which were later gathered into the Book of the Dead.
 
Decentralization of Pharaonic authority increased during the Sixth Dynasty (2330-2170BC) as small provincial principalities emerged to challenge Pharaonic power. The Sixth Dynasty kings were forced to send expeditions as far as Nubia, Libya and Palestine to put down the separatists, but these campaigns served to further erode the central authority. By the reign of the last Sixth Dynasty Pharaoh Pepi II, the Old Kingdom had become a spent force.

The First Intermediate Period (2181-2050BC)
The demise of the Old Kingdom brought a period of chaos and anarchy, which characterized the Seventh Dynasty (2181-2173BC). During this brief period over 70 rulers were said to have laid claim to the throne. The Eighth Dynasty (2173-2160BC) followed the same pattern. Civil disorders multiplied and a drought struck Egypt.  
Out of the turmoil and Pharaonic inertia, principalities within the realm raised up to challenge the authority of the kings. Achthoes, ruler of Heracleopolis, seized control of Middle Egypt, seized the throne and founded the Ninth Dynasty (2160-2130BC).
The kings of Heracleopolis maintained control over northern Egypt through the Tenth Dynasty (2130-2040BC).     
However, the rulers of Edfu and Thebes fought over control of Upper Egypt. Thebes won the battle over Upper Egypt and its ruler Inyotef Sehertowy founded the Eleventh Dynasty (2133-1991BC) with the aim of extending his power over all the land.
 
The Middle Kingdom (2050-1786BC)
Mentuhope II reigned over Egypt for fifty years and re-established political and social order, which in turn revived the economic and artistic development that characterized the glory of the Pharaohs. Trading was resumed and mines were reopened. Expansionist campaigns were re-launched against Libya, Nubia and the Bedouins of the Sinai.  
His successors Mentuhope III and Mentuhope IV continued to rule from Thebes, maintaining the strength of the Eleventh Dynasty, building and expanding their kingdom until Amenemhat, a minister during the Eleventh Dynasty, assumed the throne and founded the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1786BC). 
Amenemhat moved his capital from Thebes back to Memphis. From here he annexed Nubia and extended his kingdom to the land of Sham, as far as Syria and Palestine. Al Fayoum became the capital of the Middle Kingdom during the reign of Amenemhat's son Senusert I. His successors Amenemhat II and Senusert III built the last pyramids in Lahun, Lisht and Hawara.

The Second Intermediate Period (1786-1567BC) The New Kingdom (1567-1085BC) The Nineteenth Dynasty (1320-1200BC) The Late Period (1085-322BC) Greek Rule (332-30BC) Roman and Byzantine Rule (30BC-AD638) The Early Islamic Period (640-969) The Fatimia Period (969-1171) Ayoubid Rule (1171-1250) The Mamluke Period (1250-1517) Ottoman Rule (1517-1798) European conquest (1798-1802) The Dynasty of Mohammed Ali Pasha (1802-1892) British Occupation (1882-1952)

The rule of Nasser (1956-1970)	The rule of Sadat (1970-1981)	The rule of Mubarak (1981-present)
Gamal Abd-Al Nasser was a charismatic, ruthless, and brilliant political leader who transformed pan-Arab politics and left a troubled legacy to Egypt and the Arab world. There is little doubt that Nasser was a sincere Egyptian patriot who wanted to improve the lot of his people. But he was also a man utterly committed to the retention of power at any cost, which quickly evolved into a harsh, repressive socialist-style dictatorship. Those involved in political opposition were persecuted, driven underground, imprisoned, tortured, exiled, or executed.	Anwar Saddat had been one of the original Free Officers and served as Nasser's vice-president and chosen successor, but he had never been taken seriously until he assumed control of the government. Saddat began to systematically reverse the failed socialist policies of his predecessor, ultimately expelling the Soviets and reforming the economy. But it was Saddat's surprise attack against Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula on October 6, 1973 that gave Sadat the credibility, which earned him the respect of his countrymen. The October War gave the Arab world a tremendous psychological boost. Although the war ended in a stalemate, Sadat emerged as a hero.	Hosni Mubarak had been Sadat's vice-president since 1974. At first he continued Sadat's policies but with less flamboyance and more domestic sensitivity. At the same time, he accelerated the process of privatization and developed Egypt's tourist infrastructure, which enhanced its lucrative tourist industry.